Linguistics and Language Essay

What ordain be cove redness in this class? How do we produce and secernate dialect? How do we perceive speech communication, earn, and convicts? How do we postulate and rec exclusively analyze from texts? How bunghole we improve texts to make them easier to transform? How does the foreland function to dish spoken lecture? What be the ca procedures and kernels of reading disabilities? Is on that point style in other(a)(a) species? Central themes in psycho linguals 1) What fellowship of speech communication is subscribe to for us to usage dustup?Tacit (implicit) railroad tie vs. Explicit friendship tacit knowledge of how to coif something, but non witting of full line ups app arnt knowledge of the processes of mechanisms in performing that thing 2) What cognitive processes ar intricate in the ordinary use of oral communication? How do we understand a lecture, read a defy, h older a conversation? Cognitive processes perception, depot, t hinking, encyclopedism round definitions of basic comp wiznts of lyric semanticsThe hatching of haggle and disapprobations Syntax The grammatical arrangement of manner of speaking in a sentence or give voice Phonology The in effect(p) manikin of language Pragmatics How language is utilise in a social contextExamples from psycholinguistics Parsing tend path sentences The novice accepted the pickle sooner he had a misadventure to barricade his finances, which retch him in a posit of conflict when he realized he had a straight flush. 1) The suspect examined by the police forceyer turned go forth to be unreliable 2).The evidence examined by the lawyer turned out to be unreliable The process of parsing is the process of make decisions The effect of prior knowledge on comprehension The procedure is actu entirelyy quite simple. First you arrange things into divers(prenominal) groups. Of course, unmatchable pile discolourthorn be lucifer ciphering on how much on that point is to do.If you take hold to go somewhere else due to omit of facilities, that is the next step otherwise you atomic snatch 18 pretty well set. It is important not to everyplacedo things. That is, it is better to do in any case few things at once than in like manner umteen. In the suddenly run this whitethorn not come out important, but complications tin well arise. A mistake idler be expensive as well. At first the whole procedure forget take hold ofm complicated. Soon, however, it go out become and another facet of life. It is difficult to prognosticate any end to the necessity for this business in the immediate future, but whence one never notify insure. subsequently the procedure is completed, one arranges the materials intodifferent groups again. past they flock be amaze into their purloin stains. Eventu all(prenominal)y they will be utilize once to a greater extent, and the whole cycle will then pull in to be repeated. However, that is snap slay of life. Bransford & lavatoryson, 1973 Recall No context 2. 8 idea units out of a maximum of 18 Context afterwards 2. 7 idea units Context before 5. 8 idea units Child language outgrowth How many dustup do you know? Hint Dictionary has rough 450,000 entries scrutiny high school graduates How many war crys do they know? About 45,000 position give voice of honors About 60,000 including names and strange banters.The average six year old knows roughly 13,000 words. Learning about 10 words per day since age 1. (One all 90 minutes) How much do we gather in to t distributively kidren to learn language? Do you begin to t from each one a child to walk? Is it the same way of accomplishment a language? My teacher holded the bollocks up rabbits and we patted them I eated my dinner A instruct history of psycholinguistics Wilhem Wundt (early 1900s) Interest in amiable processes of language production Sentence as the primary unit of language run-in producti on is the transformation of complete ideal processes into sequentially organized speech segments. behaviourism (1920s-1950s) Rejected the focus on mental processes Measurement ground on bearing behavior (primarily in lab carnals) How does acknowledge (reward and punishment) shape behavior? B. F. Skinner Children learn language through shaping (correction of speech errors) Associative chain theory A sentence consists of a chain of associations surrounded by individual words in the sentence Whats wrong with the behaviorist fire? Noam Chomsky (1950s present) 1) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously 2) Furiously sleep ideas green colorless. 3) George picked up the baby.4) George picked the baby up. Almost every sentence uttered is a new combine of words The Poverty of stimulus ground in that respect is not enough entropy in the language samples presumption to children to bill for the richnes and confusedity of childrens language The descriptor of development is not b ased on p atomic number 18ntal speech but on innate language knowledge lingual Diversity vs. linguistic Universals Linguistic motley on that point appears to be a potbelly of diversity among languages Even within languages in that respect is diversity When atomic number 18 two languages different?We speak the same language if we foundation understand each otherExceptions Norwegian and Swedish Cantonese and Mandarin Dialects within languages The romance of pure language How/why do languages change? Why does there seem to be a correct face? Members of the dominant (most powerful) sub-culture tend to speak one dialect and may punish those who do not Linguistic Chauvinism whimsy that ones own language/dialect is the best of all thinkable languages Black position Vernacular (BEV) force field by William Labov Interviewed Afri deal-American street offspring You know, like some people presuppose if youre safe(p) an sh*t, your spirit goin t nirvana . . .n if you bad, your s pirit goin to hell. Well, bullsh*t Your spirit goin to hell anyway, good or bad. Why? Why? Ill tell you why. Cause, you see, doesn nothing very know that its a God, yknow, cause I mean I begin seen black gods, white gods, all color gods, and dont nobody know its really a God. An when they be sayin if you good, you goin theaven, thas bullsh*t, cause you aint goin to no heaven, cause it aint no heaven for you to go to. Place holders There vs. It in the copula Copula Is, Was elective Negatives You aint goin to no heaven.BEV just as linguistically complex as Standard American English We dont see/understand the complexness in other languages moralistic All languages seem to permit as wide range of expressions as others Linguistic Universals What is in usual with all languages? Sentences be built from words based on the same physiological processes All languages exact words All charitables have ways of making sounds. Languages tend to use a small set of phonemic sounds Ph oneme The minimal unit of sound that contributes to subject matter How many phonemes in a language? English 40 phonemes Range Polynesian 11 to Khoisan 141.Discreteness Messages in human language (e. g. speech sounds) ar make up of units of which there is a distinct ( restrain) number whimsicality The relationship in the midst of consequenceful elements in language and their university extension is in unfree of any physical akinity between the two. Words do not have to look or sound like what they describe Openness bracing linguistic messages argon created freely and easily Languages are not constrained in a way so that there are a limited number of messages that can be created. Linguistic productivity The ability to understand and create an untrammelled number of sentences.The question studied by psycholinguists is how to characterize and invoice for the creativity to compose and create an in borderinable number of sentences given the limited capabilities of the h uman brain wave- severaliseicle duality of Patterning Language involves relating two different kinds of patterns or forms of representation A phonological carcass A semantic form These two forms use very different types of codes, although there is a phonological representation for each item in the semantic system Phrase organise Information on how a sentence is grouped into phrases. The quietly boy ate the red orchard orchard apple tree tree A set of Phrase organise rulesPS 1 S (sentence) - NP + VP PS 2 NP (noun phrase)- det + (adj) + N PS 3 VP (verb phrase) - V +NP PS 4 N (noun) - boy, cut through, man, book PS 5 V (verb) - ate, broke, osculationed PS 6 adj (adjective - quiet, red, elated, wormy PS 7 det (determiner) - a, the We use lexical-insertion rules to put words into the organise. Phrase- grammatical construction rules stomach a good account of phrase- grammatical construction ambiguity. They are broiling hens Morphology Morphology is the voice of grammar that builds words out of units of meaning (morphemes)A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language How many morphemes? bird firetruck undereducated unmi braggingaveability Insights from American chump Language (ASL) Unlike speech, signs are verbalised in visual or spacial form Do a potentiometer of the same grammatical inventions hold? Arbitrariness ASL possesses iconicity signs can represent objects or operations to which they refer. However, the floor of iconicity has declined over the years Duality of Patterning signs are composed of smaller elements that are purposeless Example 3 debates 19 determine of hand configuration. 12 values of household of articulation 24 values of movements hollow patterns can be combined in various ways to from ASL signs. What about nudeness and discreteness within ASL? Transformational Grammar (Chomsky 1950s) Language an in impermanent set of well-formed sentences Grammar A finite set of rules that develops sentences in the langu age How do we know that a grammar is a good theory of language? Three criteria observational Adequacy A grammar is observationally adequate if it generates all acceptable sequences and no unacceptable sequences. descriptive adequacyA grammar essential besides explain how a sentence relates to other sentences that are similar & opposite in meaning. The ball was caught by rear end fast one caught the ball The ball was not caught by earth-c drowse offt Explanatory adequacy It is feasible for multiple grammars to attain observational and descriptive adequacy. Which is the correct/best one? Children learning language are presented with many samples of language and must determine the grammar from these samples. There must be some innate language constraints that help children determine the correct grammar. There exist Linguistic Universals that are common to all languages.The circumstance that there are similarities in languages is based on the fact that languages are determined by the genius of the mental buildings and processes which characterize human beings A Grammar must explain the mapping of linguistic universals in language acquisition unintelligible and shape up social organization productive structure The structure of the sentence that conveys the meaning of the sentence. Surface organize The superficial arrangement of constituents Deep structure ambiguity A case-by-case surface structure that is based on two different deep structures travel planes can be dangerous.Phrase structure rules would not be able to account for the differences in meaning Sentences can have similar phrase structure, although their underlying structure is different John is easy to beguile John is eager to please Sentences can different surface structure, but similar deep structure Arlene played the sousaphone The tuba was played by Arlene Transformational Grammar A two part process to advance a sentence 1) Use Phrase-structure rules to generate the underlying tr ee structure (deep structure)2) fall in a sequence of transformational rules to the deepstructure to generate the surface structure of the sentence Transformations occur by adding, deleting or lamentable constituents John phoned up the woman John phoned the woman up Phrase structure approachTwo different rules VP V + (particle) + NP VP V + NP + (particle) apiece sentence is derived separately, using different phrase structure rules. Transformational grammar approach One rule V + particle + NP V + NP + particle John phoned up the kindle woman John phoned the interesting woman up John phoned up the woman with the curly hair John phoned the woman with the curly hair up.Restrictions on transformations The particle-movement transformation can not be apply to pronouns John called them up *John called up them Example 2 peaceable transformation NP1 + V + NP2 NP2 + be + V + en + by + NP1 Arlene played the tuba The tuba was played by Arlene mental Reality of Transformational Gramma r If using language is a process of converting the deep structure to the surface structure, then the number of transformation rules applied should affect how persistent it takes to process a sentence.However, experiments do not consistently try out that this holds true Current theories of grammar lexical-Function GrammarMade up of three components a constituent structure, a functional structure, and lexical entries Constituent body structure Similar to phrase structure operative body structureAll the randomness needed for semantic interpretation John told bloody shame to leave putz Predicate tell (subj, obj, V-comp) Tense Past Subj John Obj bloody shame V-comp predicate leave subj bloody shame obj Bill Lexical Entries Lexical entries contain training about the forms of the word the kinds of sentences into which they fit, arguments and semantic roles bloody shame kissed John John was kissed by Mary Entry for kiss includes underlying semantic structurekiss (agent, enduring).F orms of the word kiss agent = subject patient = object (be) kiss agent=object patient = subject study significance of LFG virtually of the explanation of how we process language is based on the lexicon (where we reposition study about words) . Government-Binding Theory or Universal Grammar Chomskys view of innate grammatical mechanisms. In GB theory, grammar is modular. Grammar due to interaction of several(prenominal) independent subsystems, or mental facultys. Each module is fairly simple and performs part of the assign But all modules interact in order to constrain the rules made by the other modules in the grammar.Implications We all get a universal grammar that can be set to different parameter values. These parameter values correspond to different languages. As we get experience with a language, we larn these parameter values, and thus the language upon which it is based. enquiry methods in Psycholinguistics How do we observe, collect information on phenomena related t o psycholinguistics? Naturalistic reflection Observing information in a non-experimental setting Slips of the tongue Phonological change by reversal Crushing blow Blushing crow semantic replacements nordic eyes for blond hair.Language Acquisition The use of language over age Data from naturalistic observation Rich, but hard to collapse Controlled experiments Goal test an empirical venture Hypothesis A chapter will be easier to understand if each section starts with a summary of what will be said. self-supporting Variable Variable that is manipulated to test the hypothesis. babelike Variable Variable representing the behavior we expect to measure Control Variables Other variables we need to control in order to see the effect of the independent variable Subjects Who is passing play to participate in the experiment? synopsis How do we know if there are differences bewteen the two chapters? The Human Information impact System What psychological mechanisms are tangled in us ing language? The centripetal breed Processes incoming information from the environs Individual sensory stores for each wizard Information retained for a unequal duration The visual sensory store tests by Sperling (1960) X M R K C N J P V F L B The partial report proficiency Auditory sensory store Experiment by Darwin, Turvey & Crowder (1972) 3 digits or letters auditorally presented to each ear and center at the same condemnation.What is the use of the sensory store? It maintains information presbyopic enough so that we can do additional treat to it. Working store or short term memory (STM) STM used to describe the fact that it holds information for a short time, while work memory refers to the treat skill. STM works as a temporary holding place for intermediate decisions. Limited in surface. accumulate Working memory there is a limited amount of bear upon capacity that you can use as you perform a problem Long term memory Knowledge of how to do things, things we have learned, grammar rules, ad hominem memories.All knowledge that is not active. Information that becomes active is retrieved from LTM and put in STM. Anything we learn is first process in STM and some of it is put into LTM Episodic vs. Semantic recollection distinction Semantic memory organized knowledge of words, concepts, symbols and objects. motor skills, general knowledge, spatial knowledge , social skills. All information is organized semantically, but not attach based on when it was learned. Episodic memory Holds traces of events specific time and place. Memory of personal experiences. Interaction between semantic and occasional memory.What does the organization of the information process system have to do with language treat? Pattern Recognition Parsing/ soul sentences in functional memory This is a long sentence and yet somehow you can keep it all in working memory The organization of Long border Memory That cat plays really dispassionate jazz Serial vs. Para llel touch on Serial processing One process working at a time Parallel Processing Multiple processes working at a time In a serial impersonate of language processing, individual modules would work one at a time to process the information.A parallel model would say that the processes go across at the same time. Parallel models as neurally inspired models of cognitive processes Top-Down vs. bottom-up processing Cognitive processing occurs at takes Bottom-up processing is done in such a way that all processing occurs starting from the lowest level processes and proceeds onto the higher level processes high level processes do not crop any of the processing done at the lower levels Top down processing Information at the higher levels influences processing at the lower levels. Advantages and disadvantages of Top-Down processing reflex(a) vs.Controlled processes We have a limited amount of processes that we can do at a time. Controlled processing Processes that consume a substantia l amount of cognitive processing. Automatic processing Processes that do not require a substantial amount of cognitive processing. The role of practice in willing processing The Stroop effect Putting it all together Cognitive processes in action The novice accepted the deal before he had a chance to check his finances, which put him in a state of conflict when he realized he had a straight flush. The inside Lexicon How are words stored? What are they made up of?How are word related to each other? How do we use them? Internal lexicon The representation of words in long term memory Lexical entrance money How do we activate the meanings of words? Aspects of significance Reference The relationship between words and things in the innovation Things in the world are referents of a word My click has fleas My bob is from Mars But not all reference can be mapped to concrete things Abstract words Love, Justice, equation Non existent objects Unicorn, Martians heart is not dependent to the real world, but also notional worlds Sense The relationship of a word with other words in the language educatee at NMSU vs.Undergraduate at NMSU Synonymy (same meaning) Car Automobile Antonymy (opposite meaning) laughing(prenominal) Sad Incompatibility (do the words deviate each other? ) John is happy vs. John is sad Hyponymy (are they part of the same class? ) A dog is an animal, Bowser is a dog, propagation vs. connotation reference point The objective meaning of the word Connotation The aspect of the meaning beyond its explicit meaning Bachelor Spinster empty-bellied Starving The Mental Representation of Meaning The representation of the meaning of a word is based on the semantic features of that word.We amaze the meaning of a word by learning its semantic features Children make semantic mistakes Verbs of possession. We understand much than the meaning, we have knowledge of the relations between these words interchange vs. paid give vs. receive lose vs. find Protot ypes Some members of a menage are better instances of the category than others apple vs. pomegranate What makes a prototype? more(prenominal) central semantic features What type of dog is a proto typical dog What are the features of it? We are blistering at retrieving prototypes of a category than other members of the category Semantic Networks.Words can be represented as an interconnected network of awareness relations Each word is a particular node Connections among nodes represent semantic relationships Mental models A model/understanding of how the world works and how pieces of textual information fits in with it. John is sitting in a chair. That chair is on a table. The table is blue and round. John has red hair. The structure of the Internal Lexicon How do these pieces of semantic information relate to each other?Semantic verification task An A is a B An apple is a fruit A robin is a bird A robin is an animal A dog has teethA fish has gills A fish has feathers An apple has teeth NMSU is in New Mexico Harvard is in California Use time on verification tasks to map out the structure of the lexicon.Models of the Lexicon collins and Quillian Hierarchical Network model Lexical entries stored in a hierarchy, with features tie to the lexical entries Representation permits cognitive economic system Testing the model Sentence impediment time Robins eat worms 1310 msecs Robins have feathers 1380 msecs Robins have skin 1470 msecs A category size effect Subjects do an intersection face Problems with Collins and Quillian model .1) Effect may be due to frequence of association 2) Assumption that all lexical entries at the same level are equal The Typicality Effect Which is a more typical bird? Ostrich or Robin. A whale is a fish vs. A horse is a fish Major conclusions of the model 1) If a fact about a concept is frequently encountered, it will be stored with that concept even if it could be inferred from a more distant concept. 2) The more frequently encoun tered a fact about a concept is, the more potently that fact will be associated with the concept. And the more strongly associated with a concept facts are, the more rapidly they are verified.3) Verifying facts that are not directly stored with a concept but that must be inferred takes a relatively long time. bed cover activation Models (Collins & Loftus) Words represented in lexicon as a network of relationships Organization is a web of interconnected nodes in which connections can represent categorical relations class of association typicality Retrieval of information gap activation Limited amount of activation to spread Verification times depend on closeness of two concepts in a network Context effect in spreading activation models symbolise either Murder is a curse or Libel is a plague Then get verification time for Robbery is a crime Subjects faster when they see Murder than Libel. Why? Advantages of Collins and Loftus model Recognizes diversity of information in a semantic network Captures complexity of our semantic representation Consistent with results from prepare studies Lexical Access What factors are involve in retrieving information from the lexicon? Semantic fuze Meyer & Schvaneveldt (1971) Lexical finish project premier(a) guide succession Nurse cover 940 msecs Bread butter 855 msecs Evidence for associable spreading activation.Ratcliff and McKoon (1981) Subjects study and bunco The resort hated the book Task Was this word from the sentence you memorized? primal Target Time None hold 667 msecs determine Book 624 msecs Word Frequency Does word frequency play a role in lexical memory access? Lexical stopping point Task gambastya, revery, voitle, chard, wefe, cratily, decoy, puldow, raflot, oriole, vuluble, booble, chalt, awry, signet, trave, crock, cryptic, ewe, himpola mulvow, governor, bless, tuglety, gare, relief, ruftily, history, pindle, develop, gardot, norve, busy, effort, garvola, match,sard, pleasant, coin , maisle.Lexical stopping point is dependent on word frequency Eyemovement studies Subjects pass about 80 msecs eternal fixating on low-frequency words than high-frequency words geomorphological Structure So we strip off the prefixes and suffixes of a word for lexical access? decisiveness = Decide + ion Lexical Decision Tasks Prime Target Time Nurse Butter 940 msecs Bread Butter 855 msecs Evidence for associable spreading activation Ratcliff and McKoon (1981) Subjects study and memorize The doctor hated the bookTask Was this word from the sentence you memorized? Prime Target Time None Book 667 msecs Doctor Book 624 msecs Word Frequency Does word frequency play a role in lexical access? Lexical Decision Task gambastya, revery, voitle, chard, wefe, cratily, decoy, puldow, raflot, oriole, vuluble, booble, chalt, awry, signet, trave, crock, cryptic, ewe, himpola mulvow, governor, bless, tuglety, gare, relief, ruftily, history, pindle, develop, gardot, norve, busy, effort, garvola, match,sard, pleasant, coin, maisle.Lexical Decision is dependent on word frequency Eyemovement studies Subjects spend about 80 msecs longer fixating on low-frequency words than high-frequency words Morphological Structure So we strip off the prefixes and suffixes of a word for lexical access? Decision = Decide + ion Lexical Decision Tasks Presented subjects with a sequence of words to study Examined the probability of recognizing words over 14 days Performance systematically decays over time Negatively accelerated decay.Bahrick (1984) Students retention of spanish-english vocabulary items from 0 to 50 years Power law of decay Review on the inbred lexicon Aspects of meaning Reference and Sense Denotation and Connotation What is the mental representation of meaning? Models of the Lexicon Hierarchical Network Model Spreading Activation Model What factors are involved in retrieving information from the lexicon? Semantic land Word Frequency Morphological Structure Lexical Ambiguity Re tention of lexical items.